what element is most often used to indicate boundaries between forms?

Line

A line is defined every bit a mark that connects the space between ii points, taking whatsoever form forth the way.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast different uses of line in art

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections between ane or more points.
• Unsaid line refers to the path that the viewer 'due south heart takes as information technology follows shapes, colors, and forms along any given path.
• Straight or archetype lines provide stability and construction to a composition and can exist vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on a work's surface.
• Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art.
• The outline or contour lines create a border or path around the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. "Cross contour lines" delineate differences in the features of a surface.
• Hatch lines are a series of brusque lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single direction, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces, while cross-hatch lines provide boosted texture and tone to the paradigm surface and can exist oriented in any direction.

Central Terms

• texture:The feel or shape of a surface or substance; the smoothness, roughness, softness, etc. of something.
• cross-hatching:A method of showing shading past means of multiple small lines that intersect.
• line:A path through two or more points.

The line is an essential element of art, defined as a marking that connects the infinite between two points, taking any grade forth the style. Lines are used virtually often to define shape in two-dimensional works and could be called the most ancient, besides as the near universal, forms of marker making.

There are many different types of lines, all characterized by their lengths being greater than their width, also as by the paths that they take. Depending on how they are used, lines assist to determine the motion, direction, and energy of a piece of work of art. The quality of a line refers to the character that is presented by a line in order to animate a surface to varying degrees.

Bodily lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections between one or more points, while unsaid lines refer to the path that the viewer's eye takes equally it follows shape, color, and class within an art work. Implied lines give works of art a sense of motion and keep the viewer engaged in a composition. We tin can see numerous implied lines in Jacques-Louis David's Adjuration of the Horatii, connecting the figures and actions of the slice by leading the eye of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Jacques-Louis David, Adjuration of the Horatii, 1784: Many implied lines connect the figures and activity of the piece by leading the heart of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Direct or classic lines add stability and structure to a limerick and can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on the surface of the piece of work. Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art. These types of lines often follow an undetermined path of sinuous curves. The outline or profile lines create a border or path around the border of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. Cross contour lines delineate differences in the features of a surface and tin can give the illusion of 3 dimensions or a sense of class or shading.

Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a unmarried management, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces. Cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the image surface and can be oriented in whatever direction. Layers of cross-hatching tin can add together rich texture and volume to image surfaces.

Light and Value

Value refers to the use of lite and dark in art.

Learning Objectives

Explain the artistic employ of light and nighttime (also known as "value")

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• In painting, value changes are accomplished by calculation black or white to a color.
• Value in fine art is too sometimes referred to as " tint " for low-cal hues and "shade" for dark hues.
• Values nigh the lighter end of the spectrum are termed "high-keyed" while those on the darker end are called "depression-keyed."
• In ii-dimensional art works, the use of value can assist to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume .
• Chiaroscuro was a common technique in Baroque painting and refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified past very high-keyed whites, placed direct against very low-keyed darks.

Key Terms

• chiaroscuro:An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the employ of exaggerated light contrasts in guild to create the illusion of book.

The apply of light and nighttime in art is chosen value. Value can be subdivided into tint (light hues) and shade (nighttime hues). In painting, which uses subtractive color, value changes are accomplished by calculation black or white to a color. Artists may also utilise shading, which refers to a more subtle manipulation of value. The value calibration is used to evidence the standard variations in tones . Values near the lighter end of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, while those on the darker stop are low-keyed.

Value scale: The value scale represents different degrees of light used in artwork.

In ii-dimensional artworks, the utilise of value tin assistance to give a shape the illusion of mass or book. It will also give the entire composition a sense of lighting. Loftier contrast refers to the placing of lighter areas direct against much darker ones, so their deviation is showcased, creating a dramatic effect. High dissimilarity also refers to the presence of more than blacks than white or grayness. Depression-contrast images result from placing mid-range values together and then there is non much visible difference between them, creating a more subtle mood.

In Baroque painting, the technique of chiaroscuro was used to produce highly dramatic furnishings in fine art. Chiaroscuro, which means literally "light-dark" in Italian, refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified past very high-keyed whites, placed directly against very low-keyed darks. Candlelit scenes were common in Bizarre painting as they effectively produced this dramatic type of effect. Caravaggio used a high dissimilarity palette in such works as The Deprival of St. Peter to create his expressive chiaroscuro scene.

Caravaggio, The Denial of St. Peter, 1610: Caravaggio's The Denial of St. Peter is an excellent example of how light can be manipulated in artwork.

Color

In the visual arts, color theory is a body of practical guidance to colour mixing and the visual impacts of specific colour combinations.

Learning Objectives

Limited the most important elements of color theory and artists' use of colour

Central Takeaways

Central Points

• Colour theory first appeared in the 17th century, when Isaac Newton discovered that white lite could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors.
• The spectrum of colors contained in white light are red, orange, yellow, light-green, blue, indigo , and violet.
• Color theory divides color into the " principal colors " of red, yellow, and blue, which cannot exist mixed from other pigments, and the "secondary colors" of green, orange, and violet, which result from different combinations of the main colors.
• Primary and secondary colors are combined in diverse mixtures to create tertiary colors.
• Complementary colors are found opposite each other on the color wheel and represent the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Central Terms

• complementary color:A color which is regarded as the reverse of some other on the color bicycle (i.e., cherry and light-green, xanthous and imperial, and orange and blue).
• value:The relative darkness or lightness of a color in a specific area of a painting or other visual fine art.
• primary color:Any of 3 colors which, when added to or subtracted from others in unlike amounts, can generate all other colors.
• tint:A color considered with reference to other very similar colors. Red and bluish are different colors, but two shades of ruddy are different tints.
• gradation:A passing by small degrees from one tone or shade, as of color, to some other.
• hue:A color, or shade of color.

Color is a key artistic element which refers to the utilize of hue in fine art and design. It is the most complex of the elements considering of the wide assortment of combinations inherent to it. Color theory kickoff appeared in the 17th century when Isaac Newton discovered that white calorie-free could exist passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors. The spectrum of colors independent in white lite are, in order: red, orange, yellowish, green, bluish, indigo and violet.

Color theory subdivides color into the "primary colors" of red, xanthous, and blueish, which cannot be mixed from other pigments; and the "secondary colors" of light-green, orange and violet, which consequence from different combinations of the primary colors. Chief and secondary colors are combined in diverse mixtures to create "tertiary colors." Color theory is centered effectually the color wheel, a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other .

Colour bike: The color wheel is a diagram that shows the human relationship of the diverse colors to each other.

Color " value " refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a color. In addition, "tint" and "shade" are important aspects of color theory and result from lighter and darker variations in value, respectively. "Tone" refers to the gradation or subtle changes of a color on a lighter or darker scale. "Saturation" refers to the intensity of a color.

Condiment and Subtractive Color

Additive color is color created by mixing cherry, greenish, and blue lights. Tv screens, for example, apply condiment colour as they are made up of the primary colors of red, blue and light-green (RGB). Subtractive color,  or "procedure color," works as the reverse of condiment color and the primary colors become cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). Mutual applications of subtractive colour can be found in press and photography.

Complementary Colour

Complementary colors can exist found straight reverse each other on the color bicycle (purple and yellow, green and carmine, orangish and blue). When placed next to each other, these pairs create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Warm and Cool Color

The distinction between warm and cool colors has been important since at least the late 18th century. The dissimilarity, as traced by etymologies in the Oxford English language Dictionary, seems related to the observed contrast in landscape calorie-free, betwixt the "warm" colors associated with daylight or dusk and the "cool" colors associated with a gray or overcast twenty-four hours. Warm colors are the hues from red through yellow, browns and tans included. Cool colors, on the other manus, are the hues from blue green through blue violet, with most grays included. Colour theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or appear more active in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede. Used in interior blueprint or fashion, warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer , while cool colors calm and relax.

Texture

Texture refers to the tactile quality of the surface of an art object.

Learning Objectives

Recognize the use of texture in art

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the creative person creates through the use of diverse artistic elements such every bit line , shading, and color.
• Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities we can notice by touching an object.
• Visible brushstrokes and dissimilar amounts of paint volition create a physical texture that can add to the expressiveness of a painting and draw attending to specific areas within it.
• Information technology is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures only still remain smooth to the touch.

Primal Terms

• tactile:Tangible; perceptible to the sense of touch.

Texture

Texture in fine art stimulates the senses of sight and touch and refers to the tactile quality of the surface of the art. It is based on the perceived texture of the canvas or surface, which includes the application of the paint. In the context of artwork, there are ii types of texture: visual and actual. Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the artist creates through the employ of diverse creative elements such as line, shading and color. Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities we can notice past touching an object, such as paint application or three-dimensional art.

Information technology is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures, yet still remain smoothen to the touch. Take for instance Realist or Illusionist works, which rely on the heavy employ of paint and varnish, yet maintain an utterly shine surface. In Jan Van Eyck's painting "The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin" we tin can notice a keen deal of texture in the vesture and robes especially, while the surface of the piece of work remains very smooth .

Jan van Eyck, The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin, 1435: The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin has a great bargain of texture in the clothing and robes, but the actual surface of the work is very smooth.

Paintings often apply bodily texture also, which we can observe in the concrete application of paint. Visible brushstrokes and different amounts of paint will create a texture that adds to the expressiveness of a painting and draw attending to specific areas within information technology. The artist Vincent van Gogh is known to have used a peachy deal of bodily texture in his paintings, noticeable in the thick application of paint in such paintings as Starry Dark.

Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Nighttime, 1889: The Starry Night contains a great deal of bodily texture through the thick awarding of paint.

Shape and Volume

Shape refers to an area in a 2-dimensional space that is defined by edges; volume is iii-dimensional, exhibiting superlative, width, and depth.

Learning Objectives

Ascertain shape and volume and identify ways they are represented in art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• "Positive space " refers to the space of the defined shape or figure.
• "Negative space" refers to the space that exists around and between i or more shapes.
• A " aeroplane " in art refers to any surface area within space.
• " Form " is a concept that is related to shape and tin be created by combining ii or more shapes, resulting in a three-dimensional shape.
• Fine art makes apply of both actual and implied volume .
• Shape, volume, and space, whether actual or unsaid, are the basis of the perception of reality.

Central Terms

• form:The shape or visible construction of an artistic expression.
• volume:A unit of three-dimensional mensurate of space that comprises a length, a width, and a pinnacle.
• plane:A flat surface extending infinitely in all directions (e.g., horizontal or vertical airplane).

Shape refers to an area in 2-dimensional space that is defined past edges. Shapes are, by definition, always flat in nature and can exist geometric (due east.thou., a circle, square, or pyramid) or organic (e.g., a leaf or a chair). Shapes tin can be created by placing two dissimilar textures , or shape-groups, side by side to each other, thereby creating an enclosed area, such as a painting of an object floating in water.

"Positive infinite" refers to the space of the divers shape, or effigy. Typically, the positive space is the bailiwick of an artwork. "Negative space" refers to the space that exists around and betwixt 1 or more than shapes. Positive and negative space tin become difficult to distinguish from each other in more than abstract works.

A "plane" refers to whatsoever surface area within infinite. In two-dimensional art, the " picture show aeroplane " is the flat surface that the epitome is created upon, such as paper, canvas, or wood. Three-dimensional figures may be depicted on the flat picture plane through the utilize of the artistic elements to imply depth and volume, as seen in the painting Minor Boutonniere of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase past Jan Brueghel the Elder.

Jan Brueghel the Elderberry, Modest Boutonniere of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase, 1599: Iii-dimensional figures may be depicted on the apartment picture plane through the utilise of the artistic elements to imply depth and volume.

"Form" is a concept that is related to shape. Combining two or more than shapes can create a three-dimensional shape. Grade is always considered iii-dimensional equally it exhibits volume—or height, width, and depth. Art makes use of both actual and implied volume.

While iii-dimensional forms, such as sculpture, have volume inherently, book can as well be simulated, or implied, in a two-dimensional work such as a painting. Shape, volume, and space—whether bodily or implied—are the basis of the perception of reality.

Time and Motion

Motion, a principle of art, is a tool artists use to organize the artistic elements in a work; it is employed in both static and time-based mediums.

Learning Objectives

Name some techniques and mediums used past artists to convey motion in both static and fourth dimension-based art forms

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Techniques such as scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of time in static a visual slice.
• The placement of a repeated element in different area within an artwork is another way to imply movement and the passing of time.
• Visual experiments in time and motion were offset produced in the mid-19th century, and the photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well-known for his sequential shots.
• The fourth dimension-based mediums of picture show, video, kinetic sculpture , and performance art employ time and motion by their very definitions.

Cardinal Terms

• frames per second:The number of times an imaging device produces unique sequent images (frames) in one second. Abbreviation: FPS.
• static:Fixed in place; having no motility.

Motion, or movement, is considered to exist one of the "principles of fine art"; that is, 1 of the tools artists use to organize the artistic elements in a piece of work of art. Motion is employed in both static and in time-based mediums and can bear witness a straight action or the intended path for the viewer 'southward eye to follow through a slice.

Techniques such every bit scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of time in static visual artwork. For case, on a apartment picture plane , an prototype that is smaller and lighter colored than its environment will appear to exist in the groundwork. Another technique for implying motion and/or fourth dimension is the placement of a repeated element in different areas within an artwork.

Visual experiments in time and motion were beginning produced in the mid-19th century. The lensman Eadweard Muybridge is well known for his sequential shots of humans and animals walking, running, and jumping, which he displayed together to illustrate the movement of his subjects. Marcel Duchamp'south Nude Descending a Staircase, No. ii exemplifies an absolute feeling of motion from the upper left to lower correct corner of the piece.

Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912: This piece of work represents Duchamp's formulation of motion and time.

While static art forms have the ability to imply or suggest time and motion, the time-based mediums of moving-picture show, video, kinetic sculpture, and functioning fine art demonstrate time and motion by their very definitions. Film is many static images that are chop-chop passed through a lens. Video is essentially the same process, but digitally-based and with fewer frames per second . Functioning art takes place in existent time and makes utilize of real people and objects, much like theater. Kinetic fine art is art that moves, or depends on motility, for its event. All of these mediums use time and move every bit a fundamental aspect of their forms of expression.

Chance, Improvisation, and Spontaneity

Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus movement all relied on the elements of chance, improvisation, and spontaneity as tools for making art works.

Learning Objectives

Depict how Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus move relied on chance, improvisation, and spontaneity

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Dadaists are known for their "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which highlights the creativity of the unconscious heed.
• Surrealist works, much like Dadaist works, often feature an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition , and tapping into the unconscious listen.
• Surrealists are known for having invented " exquisite corpse" drawing.
• The Fluxus movement was known for its " happenings ," which were operation events or situations that could take place anywhere, in any form , and relied heavily on take a chance, improvisation, and audition participation.

Fundamental Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised result, peculiarly ane that involves audience participation.
• assemblage:A drove of things which accept been gathered together..

Chance, improvisation, and spontaneity are elements that can be used to create art, or they tin can be the very purpose of the artwork itself. Whatsoever medium tin apply these elements at whatever point within the artistic process.

Marcel Duchamp, Urinal, 1917: Marcel Duchamp's Urinal is an example of a "gear up-fabricated," which were objects that were purchased or found and then declared art.

Dadaism

Dadaism was an art movement pop in Europe in the early 20th century. Information technology was started past artists and poets in Zurich, Switzerland with strong anti-war and left-leaning sentiments. The movement rejected logic and reason and instead prized irrationality, nonsense, and intuition. Marcel Duchamp was a dominant member of the Dadaist movement, known for exhibiting "ready-mades," which were objects that were purchased or institute then alleged art.

Dadaists used what was readily bachelor to create what was termed an "assemblage," using items such as photographs, trash, stickers, omnibus passes, and notes. The work of the Dadaists involved gamble, improvisation, and spontaneity to create fine art. They are known for using "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which oft took nonsensical forms, but allowed for the opportunity of potentially surprising juxtapositions and unconscious creativity.

Surrealism

The Surrealist movement, which adult out of Dadaism primarily as a political motility, featured an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition and the tapping of the unconscious mind. Andre Breton, an important member of the movement, wrote the Surrealist manifesto, defining information technology as follows:

"Surrealism, n. Pure psychic automatism , by which one proposes to express, either verbally, in writing, or by whatsoever other manner, the real functioning of thought. Dictation of thought in the absence of all control exercised past reason, outside of all aesthetic and moral preoccupation. "

Like Dadaism before information technology, the Surrealist movement stressed the unimportance of reason and planning and instead relied heavily upon chance and surprise as a tool to harness the creativity of the unconscious heed. Surrealists are known for having invented "exquisite corpse" drawing, an do where words and images are collaboratively assembled, i afterwards some other. Many Surrealist techniques, including exquisite corpse drawing, immune for the playful creation of art through assigning value to spontaneous production.

The Fluxus movement

The Fluxus movement of the 1960s was highly influenced by Dadaism. Fluxus was an international network of artists that skillfully composite together many different disciplines, and whose piece of work was characterized by the use of an extreme do-it-yourself (DIY) artful and heavily intermedia artworks. In addition, Fluxus was known for its "happenings," which were multi-disciplinary performance events or situations that could have place anywhere. Audience participation was essential in a happening, and therefore relied on a slap-up deal of surprise and improvisation. Fundamental elements of happenings were often planned, just artists left room for improvisation, which eliminated the boundary between the artwork and the viewer , thus making the audience an important function of the art.

Inclusion of All V Senses

The inclusion of the v human senses in a single piece of work takes place near often in installation and operation fine art.

Learning Objectives

Explain how installation and performance art include the five senses of the viewer

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• In gimmicky fine art, information technology is quite mutual for piece of work to cater to the senses of sight, touch, and hearing, while it is somewhat less common to address smell and gustatory modality.
• "Gesamtkunstwerk," or "total work of art," is a German word that refers to an artwork that attempts to address all five human senses.
• Installation art is a genre of three-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer 'south perception of a space .
• Virtual reality is a term that refers to calculator-simulated environments.

Key Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised result, specially one that involves audition participation.
• virtual reality:A reality based in the estimator.

The inclusion of the five human being senses in a unmarried work takes place well-nigh often in installation and performance-based art. In add-on, works that strive to include all senses at once generally make use of some class of interactivity, every bit the sense of gustatory modality clearly must involve the participation of the viewer. Historically, this attention to all senses was reserved to ritual and ceremony . In contemporary fine art, information technology is quite common for work to cater to the senses of sight, touch on, and hearing, while somewhat less common for art to accost the senses of scent and sense of taste.

The High german word "Gesamtkunstwerk," significant "total work of art," refers to a genre of artwork that attempts to accost all v homo senses. The concept was brought to prominence by the German opera composer Richard Wagner in 1849. Wagner staged an opera that sought to unite the art forms, which he felt had get overly disparate. Wagner's operas paid groovy attention to every particular in order to achieve a state of total creative immersion. "Gesamkunstwerk" is now an accepted English term relating to aesthetics , only has evolved from Wagner's definition to mean the inclusion of the five senses in art.

Installation art is a genre of 3-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer'south perception of a space. Beach by Rachel Whiteread exemplifies this type of transformation. The term generally pertains to an interior space, while Land Fine art typically refers to an outdoor space, though in that location is some overlap between these terms. The Fluxus movement of the 1960s is fundamental to the development of installation and performance art as mediums.

Rachel Whiteread, Embankment, 2005: Whiteread's installation Embankment is a type of fine art designed to transform the viewer's perception of space.

"Virtual reality" is a term that refers to computer-imitation environments. Currently, most virtual reality environments are visual experiences, but some simulations include additional sensory information. Immersive virtual reality has adult in recent years with the improvement of engineering science and is increasingly addressing the five senses within a virtual realm. Artists accept been exploring the possibilities of these simulated and virtual realities with the expansion of the discipline of cyberarts, though what constitutes cyberart continues to be up for debate. Environments such as the virtual world of 2nd Life are generally accustomed, but whether or not video games should be considered art remains undecided.

Compositional Rest

Compositional residual refers to the placement of the artistic elements in relation to each other within a work of fine art.

Learning Objectives

Categorize the elements of compositional residual in a work of art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• A harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements and then that no one function of a work overpowers or seems heavier than whatsoever other part.
• The three most common types of compositional balance are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial .
• When balanced, a composition appears stable and visually right. Just equally symmetry relates to artful preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" announced, the overall residuum of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the piece of work.

Cardinal Terms

• radial:Bundled similar rays that radiate from, or converge to, a common center.
• symmetry:Exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane, middle, or axis. The satisfying organisation of a counterbalanced distribution of the elements of a whole.
• disproportion:Desire of symmetry, or proportion between the parts of a matter, specially want of bilateral symmetry. Lacking a common measure between two objects or quantities; Incommensurability. That which causes something to non be symmetrical.

Compositional balance refers to the placement of the elements of fine art (color, form , line , shape, space , texture , and value) in relation to each other. When balanced, a composition appears more stable and visually pleasing. But every bit symmetry relates to artful preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" announced, the overall balance of a given limerick contributes to exterior judgments of the work.

Creating a harmonious compositional rest involves arranging elements and then that no single role of a work overpowers or seems heavier than whatever other role. The three most common types of compositional balance are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial.

Compositional balance: The three common types of balance are symmetric, disproportionate, and radial.

Symmetrical residue is the most stable, in a visual sense, and mostly conveys a sense of harmonious or aesthetically pleasing proportionality. When both sides of an artwork on either side of the horizontal or vertical axis of the pic plane are the same in terms of the sense that is created past the arrangement of the elements of fine art, the work is said to exhibit this blazon of balance. The contrary of symmetry is disproportion .

Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man, 1487: Leonardo da Vinci'due south Vitruvian Man is ofttimes used as a representation of symmetry in the homo body and, by extension, the natural universe.

Asymmetry is divers as the absence of, or a violation of, the principles of symmetry. Examples of asymmetry appear commonly in compages. Although pre-modernistic architectural styles tended to place an emphasis on symmetry (except where farthermost site conditions or historical developments lead away from this classical ideal), modern and postmodern architects frequently used asymmetry as a blueprint element. For instance, while near bridges utilise a symmetrical form due to intrinsic simplicities of design, analysis, fabrication, and economical use of materials, a number of modern bridges have deliberately departed from this, either in response to site-specific considerations or to create a dramatic design argument. .

Oakland Bay Bridge: Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge reflects asymmetrical architectural design.

Radial balance refers to circular elements in compositions. In classical geometry, a radius of a circle or sphere is any line segment from its middle to its perimeter. By extension, the radius of a circumvolve or sphere is the length of any such segment, which is half the diameter. The radius may be more than than one-half the diameter, which is usually defined as the maximum altitude between whatsoever two points of the effigy. The inradius of a geometric figure is unremarkably the radius of the largest circumvolve or sphere independent in it. The inner radius of a ring, tube or other hollow object is the radius of its cavity. The name "radial" or "radius" comes from Latin radius, meaning "ray" but also the spoke of a circular chariot wheel.

Rhythm

Artists use rhythm every bit a tool to guide the heart of the viewer through works of art.

Learning Objectives

Recognize and translate the use of rhythm in a piece of work of art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Rhythm may exist more often than not defined as a "movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different atmospheric condition" (Anon. 1971).
• Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation equally "timed movement through space " (Jirousek 1995), and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.
• For case, placing a red spiral at the lesser left and top right, for example, will cause the middle to movement from one spiral, to the other, and everything in between. It is indicating movement in the piece by the repetition of elements and, therefore, tin make artwork seem active.

Key Terms

• symmetry:Verbal correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane, center or axis. The satisfying arrangement of a balanced distribution of the elements of a whole.

The principles of visual art are the rules, tools, and guidelines that artists use to organize the elements of in a slice of artwork. When the principles and elements are successfully combined, they aid in creating an aesthetically pleasing or interesting work of fine art. While there is some variation amidst them, motion, unity, harmony, diverseness, residuum, rhythm, emphasis, contrast , proportion, and blueprint are commonly sited as principles of art.

Rhythm (from Greek rhythmos, "any regular recurring movement, symmetry " (Liddell and Scott 1996)) may be generally defined as a "motion marked by the regulated succession of potent and weak elements, or of reverse or different conditions" (Anon. 1971). This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in fourth dimension may be practical to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to millions of years. In the performing arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human being calibration, of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a trip the light fantastic, or the meter of spoken language and verse. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, equally "timed motility through space" (Jirousek 1995), and a common linguistic communication of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.

In a visual limerick , pattern and rhythm are generally expressed by showing consistency with colors or lines . For case, placing a red spiral at the lesser left and top right, for case, volition crusade the eye to move from i spiral, to the other, and and so to the space in between. The repetition of elements creates movement of the viewer 's center and can, therefore, make the artwork feel active. Hilma af Klint'southward Svanen (The Swan) exemplifies the visual representation of rhythm using color and symmetry.

Hilma af Klint, Svanen (The Swan), 1914: Colour and symmetry work together in this painting to guide the centre of the viewer in a detail visual rhythm.

Proportion and Scale

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements inside a limerick.

Learning Objectives

Employ the concept of proportion to unlike works of art

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork.
• Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not only a building merely the set and setting of the site.
• Amongst the various ancient creative traditions, the harmonic proportions, human proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry , and small whole-number ratios were all practical as office of the practice of architectural blueprint.

Key Terms

• golden ratio:The irrational number (approximately i·618), commonly denoted by the Greek letter of the alphabet φ (phi), which is equal to the sum of its own reciprocal and i, or, equivalently, is such that the ratio of 1 to the number is equal to the ratio of its reciprocal to i. Some twentieth-century artists and architects accept proportioned their works to approximate this—especially in the grade of the golden rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter equals this number—believing this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing.

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements inside a composition . Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. In ancient Egyptian art, for case, gods and important political figures appear much larger than common people. First with the Renaissance , artists recognized the connexion between proportion and perspective , and the illusion of three-dimensional infinite . Images of the man body in exaggerated proportion were used to depict the reality an creative person interpreted.

Depiction of Narmer from the Narmer Palette: Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied past men carrying the standards of various local gods. This piece demonstrates the ancient Egyptians' use of proportion, with Narmer appearing larger than the other figures depicted.

Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not only a edifice but the gear up and setting of the site. The things that make a building and its site "well shaped" include everything from the orientation of the site and the buildings on it, to the features of the grounds on which information technology is situated. Light, shade, wind, elevation , and pick of materials all relate to a standard of architectural proportion.

Architecture has often used proportional systems to generate or constrain the forms considered suitable for inclusion in a edifice. In near every building tradition, at that place is a system of mathematical relations which governs the relationships between aspects of the design. These systems of proportion are often quite simple: whole number ratios or incommensurable ratios (such as the gilded ratio) were determined using geometrical methods. More often than not, the goal of a proportional organization is to produce a sense of coherence and harmony amid the elements of a building.

Among the various ancient artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, homo proportions, cosmic orientations, diverse aspects of sacred geometry, and modest whole-number ratios were all applied every bit part of the practice of architectural design. For instance, the Greek classical architectural orders are all proportioned rather than dimensioned or measured modules, because the earliest modules were not based on trunk parts and their spans (fingers, palms, hands, and feet), but rather on column diameters and the widths of arcades and fenestrations .

Temple of Portanus: The Greek Temple of Portanus is an instance of classical Greek architecture with its tetrastyle portico of four Ionic columns.

Typically, one fix of column diameter modules used for casework and architectural moldings by the Egyptians and Romans is based on the proportions of the palm and the finger, while another less delicate module—used for door and window trim, tile work, and covering in Mesopotamia and Greece—was based on the proportions of the hand and the pollex.

Dating back to the Pythagoreans, at that place was an idea that proportions should be related to standards, and that the more general and formulaic the standards, the better. This concept—that at that place should be beauty and elegance evidenced by a skillful composition of well understood elements—underlies mathematics, fine art, and architecture. The classical standards are a series of paired opposites designed to expand the dimensional constraints of harmony and proportion.

Space

Space in fine art can exist defined as the surface area that exists between two identifiable points.

Learning Objectives

Define space in art and listing ways it is employed by artists

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• The arrangement of space is referred to as limerick and is an essential component to any piece of work of art.
• The space of an artwork includes the groundwork, foreground, and centre ground , as well every bit the altitude between, around, and within things.
• There are ii types of space: positive infinite and negative space.
• Subsequently spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective , Western creative notions about the accurate depiction of space went through a radical shift at the outset of the 20th century.
• Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an important shift in the utilize of space inside Western art, which is still being felt today.

Key Terms

• infinite:The distance or empty area between things.
• Cubism:An artistic motion in the early 20th century characterized past the delineation of natural forms as geometric structures of planes.

The organization of infinite in fine art is referred to every bit composition, and is an essential component of any work of fine art. Space can be generally divers as the expanse that exists between any two identifiable points.

Space is conceived of differently in each medium . The infinite in a painting, for case, includes the groundwork, foreground and middle ground, while three-dimensional space, like sculpture or installation , will involve the altitude between, around, and within points of the work. Space is further categorized as positive or negative. "Positive space" tin can exist defined as the bailiwick of an artwork, while "negative space" tin exist defined as the space around the subject.

Over the ages, space has been conceived of in various means. Artists have devoted a great bargain of time to experimenting with perspectives and degrees of flatness of the pictorial airplane .

The perspective organization has been a highly employed convention in Western art. Visually, it is an illusionist phenomenon, well suited to realism and the delineation of reality as it appears. After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective, Western artistic conventions well-nigh the accurate depiction of infinite went through a radical shift at the kickoff of the 20th century. The innovations of Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an important shift in the use of space within Western art, the impact of which is notwithstanding beingness felt.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907: Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is an example of cubist art, which has a tendency to flatten the picture plane, and its utilise of abstruse shapes and irregular forms suggest multiple points of view within a unmarried prototype.

2-Dimensional Space

Ii-dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar project of the physical universe in which we live.

Learning Objectives

Hash out two-dimensional space in art and the physical properties on which it is based

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• In physical terms, dimension refers to the constituent structure of all space and its position in time.
• Drawing is a form of visual art that makes use of any number of instruments to marker a ii-dimensional medium .
• Almost any dimensional grade can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these bones shapes take been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more than accurate and polished form.

Primal Terms

• dimension:A single attribute of a given thing. A measure out of spatial extent in a particular direction, such as height, width or latitude, or depth.
• Ii-Dimensional:Existing in two dimensions. Not creating the illusion of depth.
• Planar:Of or pertaining to a airplane. Flat, two-dimensional.

Two dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe in which nosotros live. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width. Both directions lie on the same airplane . In physics, our bi-dimensional infinite is viewed as a planar representation of the space in which we motion.

Mathematical depiction of bi-dimensional space: Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.

In art composition , drawing is a form of visual fine art that makes apply of any number of cartoon instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium (significant that the object does not have depth). Ane of the simplest and almost efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout man history. Additionally, the relative availability of basic cartoon instruments makes drawing more than universal than virtually other media.

Measuring the dimensions of a bailiwick while blocking in the drawing is an important footstep in producing a realistic rendition of a discipline. Tools such as a compass can exist used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles tin can be reproduced on the cartoon surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the field of study with each other. A finger placed at a bespeak forth the cartoon implement can exist used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, information technology is helpful at first to represent the course with a prepare of primitive shapes.

About any dimensional form tin be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these bones shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can exist refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced past the final likeness. A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the creative person possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the homo proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, articulation location, muscle placement, tendon motility, and how the unlike parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not announced artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject field, specially when drawing a portrait.

Drawing human figures: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec's Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897.

Linear Perspective and Three-Dimensional Space

Perspective is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an epitome as it is seen past the eye.

Learning Objectives

Explain perspective and its touch on art composition

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the fifth century B.C. in the art of Ancient Hellenic republic.
• The primeval art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer .
• In Medieval Europe, the apply and sophistication of attempts to convey altitude increased steadily but without a footing in a systematic theory.
• By the Renaissance , about every creative person in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings, both to portray depth and also as a new and "of the moment" compositional method.

Cardinal Terms

• curvilinear:Having bends; curved; formed by curved lines.
• horizon line:A horizontal line in perspective drawing, directly opposite the viewer'southward eye and often unsaid, that represents objects infinitely far away and determines the angle or perspective from which the viewer sees the piece of work.
• vanishing point:The point in a perspective drawing at which parallel lines receding from an observer seem to converge.
• Perspective:The technique of representing iii-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface.

In art, perspective is an guess representation on a apartment surface of an image every bit it is seen by the eye, calculated by assuming a particular vanishing indicate . Systematic attempts to evolve a organisation of perspective are usually considered to accept begun effectually the 5th century BCE in the art of Aboriginal Greece. By the later periods of antiquity , artists—especially those in less popular traditions—were well aware that distant objects could exist shown smaller than those close at mitt for increased illusionism. Simply whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings institute in the ruins of Pompeii show a remarkable realism and perspective for their fourth dimension.

The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically co-ordinate to their spiritual or thematic importance, non their distance from the viewer. The nigh important figures are often shown as the highest in a limerick , also from hieratic motives, leading to the "vertical perspective" mutual in the fine art of Ancient Arab republic of egypt , where a grouping of "nearer" figures are shown below the larger figure(south).

The art of the Migration Period had no tradition of attempting compositions of large numbers of figures, and Early Medieval art was slow and inconsistent in relearning the convention from classical models, though the process can be seen underway in Carolingian art. European Medieval artists were aware of the full general principle of varying the relative size of elements co-ordinate to distance, and utilize and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, but without a ground in a systematic theory.

By the Renaissance, however, nearly every creative person in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings. Non only was this use of perspective a way to portray depth, but it was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a unmarried, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. For a while, perspective remained the domain of Florence. Gradually, and partly through the motility of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists across Europe and, later, other parts of the world.

Perspective in Renaissance Painting: Pietro Perugino's usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

A drawing has one-indicate perspective when it contains only 1 vanishing point on the horizon line . This type of perspective is typically used for images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed and so that the front is straight facing the viewer. Whatever objects that are made up of lines either directly parallel with the viewer's line of sight or directly perpendicular (the railroad slats) can exist represented with one-point perspective. These parallel lines converge at the vanishing indicate.

Two-betoken perspective can be used to draw the same objects every bit one-bespeak perspective, but rotated—such as looking at the corner of a house, or looking at ii forked roads compress into the distance. In looking at a house from the corner, for example, one wall would recede towards i vanishing signal and the other wall would recede towards the opposite vanishing signal.

Three-point perspective is used for buildings depicted from higher up or beneath. In addition to the two vanishing points from before, 1 for each wall, at that place is at present a third i for how those walls recede into the footing . This 3rd vanishing point would be below the ground.

Iv-indicate perspective is the curvilinear variant of two-indicate perspective. The resulting elongated frame tin be used both horizontally and vertically. Like all other foreshortened variants of perspective, iv-point perspective starts off with a horizon line, followed past iv equally spaced vanishing points to delineate four vertical lines. Because vanishing points be only when parallel lines are present in the scene, a perspective with no vanishing points ("zippo-betoken") occurs if the viewer is observing a not-rectilinear scene. The most common example of a nonlinear scene is a natural scene (east.g., a mountain range), which frequently does not contain whatever parallel lines. A perspective without vanishing points tin can still create a sense of depth.

Distortions of Space and Foreshortening

Baloney is used to create various representations of space in two-dimensional works of art.

Learning Objectives

Place how baloney is both employed and avoided in works of art

Cardinal Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of iii-dimensional infinite when fatigued or "projected" onto a two-dimensional surface. Information technology is impossible to accurately depict three-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional plane .
• However, there are several constructs available which allow for seemingly authentic representation. Perspective projection can exist used to mirror how the eye sees by the use of 1 or more vanishing points .
• Although distortion can be irregular or follow many patterns, the most commonly encountered distortions in composition , especially in photography, are radially symmetric, or approximately so, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge into, a mutual center
• projection:The epitome that a translucent object casts onto another object.
• foreshortening:A technique for creating the appearance that the object of a cartoon is extending into space by shortening the lines with which that object is fatigued.

A distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of an object, epitome, audio, or other form of data or representation. Baloney tin can exist wanted or unwanted by the creative person. Baloney is usually unwanted when it concerns physical degradation of a piece of work. However, it is more than unremarkably referred to in terms of perspective, where it is employed to create realistic representations of space in ii-dimensional works of art.

Perspective Projection Distortion

Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of iii-dimensional space when drawn or "projected" onto a 2-dimensional surface. Information technology is impossible to accurately depict three-dimensional reality on a ii-dimensional plane. However, there are several constructs available that allow for seemingly accurate representation. The most common of these is perspective projection. Perspective projection tin exist used to mirror how the eye sees past making use of ane or more than vanishing points.

Giotto, Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ), 1305–1306: Giotto is one of the nearly notable pre-Renaissance artists to recognize baloney on two-dimensional planes.

Foreshortening

Foreshortening is the visual effect or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than it actually is because information technology is angled toward the viewer . Although foreshortening is an important element in art where visual perspective is being depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of iii-dimensional scenes, such as oblique parallel project drawings.

The physiological basis of visual foreshortening was undefined until the yr m when the Arabian mathematician and philosopher, Alhazen, in his Perspectiva, first explained that light projects conically into the centre. A method for presenting foreshortened geometry systematically onto a plane surface was unknown for another 300 years. The artist Giotto may accept been the kickoff to recognize that the image beheld by the eye is distorted: to the heart, parallel lines appear to intersect (similar the distant edges of a path or road), whereas in "undistorted" nature, they exercise not. In many of Giotto's paintings, perspective is employed to accomplish various baloney furnishings.

Foreshortening: This painting illustrates Melozzo da Forlì's usage of upwards foreshortening in his frescoes at The Basilica della Santa Casa.

Distortion in Photography

In photography, the projection mechanism is light reflected from an object. To execute a cartoon using perspective project, projectors emanate from all points of an object and intersect at a station point. These projectors intersect with an imaginary airplane of projection and an image is created on the plane by the points of intersection. The resulting image on the projection plane reproduces the paradigm of the object as it is beheld from the station indicate.

Radial distortion can usually be classified as one of 2 main types: butt distortion and pincushion distortion. Barrel distortion occurs when image magnification decreases with distance from the optical axis. The apparent effect is that of an image which has been mapped around a sphere (or barrel). Fisheye lenses, which take hemispherical views, utilize this type of distortion as a fashion to map an infinitely broad object airplane into a finite prototype area.

On the other manus, in pincushion distortion, the image magnification increases with the distance from the optical centrality. The visible issue is that lines that practice not go through the eye of the image are bowed inwards, towards the center of the image, like a pincushion. A sure corporeality of pincushion distortion is often found with visual optical instruments (i.e., binoculars), where it serves to eliminate the globe issue.

Cylindrical perspective is a grade of baloney caused by fisheye and panoramic lenses, which reproduce directly horizontal lines in a higher place and below the lens axis level as curved, while reproducing straight horizontal lines on lens centrality level as directly. This is also a common feature of wide-angle anamorphic lenses of less than 40mm focal length in cinematography. Essentially it is merely barrel baloney, but only in the horizontal plane. It is an artifact of the squeezing process that anamorphic lenses do to fit widescreen images onto standard-width flick.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/visual-elements/#:~:text=The%20line%20is%20an%20essential,universal%2C%20forms%20of%20mark%20making.

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